中国的传统与转型第三章课件.pptx

3. Classic China: The Golden Age Of Chinese Thoughtv3.1 The Later ChouvWe do not know how long the early Chou maintained effective control over their wide conquests-perhaps not for long or only sporadically. vThe original bonds of loyalty between the kings and their vassals probably weakened over time. vIn 841 B.C, the tenth Chou king was driven out of his capital by its citizens, and an interregnum of thirteen years ensued. vMarxist Chinese historians make much of this event as the first popular uprising in Chinese history. vIt produced considerable disruption, and perhaps this accounts for the fact that traditional Chinese dating becomes reliable only after that date.vThe next king managed to resuscitate Chou power and is said to have led armies of 3000 chariots and 30,000 men, as compared with the 350 chariots used in the original conquest, vIn770 B.C., however, what remained of Chou power was extinguished when “barbarians” in alliance with rebel Chinese principalities destroyed the capital. vTradition says that the thirteenth king, by lighting the beacon fires, had repeatedly summoned his vassals troops merely to amuse a favorite concubine, and now when help was really needed no one responded. vThe royal line was re-established at the subsidiary capital of Loyang to the east, but the Chou kings never again exercised any real political or military power, remaining only certain religious and ceremonial functions until their final extinction in 256 B.C.vThe period before 770 B.C. is called the Western Chou from the location of the capital, and the period after 770, the Eastern Chou. vThe Chinese, despite a strong emphasis on the decimal system in counting (they had little use for dozens，the seven-day week, and the like), have not traditionally counted time by centuries.vInstead they have divided history into dynastic segments, such as the Western Chou and the Eastern Chou. vThe Chinese further subdivide part of the Eastern Chou into two shorter periods, the name of which will be explained later. vThese are the “Spring and Autumn” period, usually dated 722-481, and the “Warring States” period, commonly dated 403-221. vThe chronological chart included in this volume will help the reader coordinate the Chinese dynasties and periods with the Western system of counting years.3.1.1 Technological and Economic GrowthvLater Chinese, imbued with the ideal of a unified empire, have looked back on the Eastern Chou as a period of hopeless disunity. vBut it was an age of dynamic growth, bursting energy, and tremendous creativity. vPossibly the very lack of central authority and the multiplicity of rival states served as stimuli. vIn many ways the Eastern Chou is the most exciting and romantic phase of Chinese history.vIn the eighth century B.C, China was still technologically behind West Asia, but by the end of the period it had largely caught up and already was the most populous land on earth. vThe seven largest of the Chinese states together may have had in the neighborhood of 20 million people-quite comparable to the whole of West Asia and the Mediterranean area. vIron, which had appeared about a millennium earlier in the West, became common in china by the fifth century B.C.vIron replaced bronze foe weapons, and iron farming tool and the ox-drawn plow brought an agricultural revolution to China. vHitherto unframed areas in North China were brought under the plow, and the remaining island of “barbarian” peoples were absorbed into the dominant culture. vGrain yields were also greatly expanded by large-scale irrigation and other water-control projects, and great effort was devoted to the construction of transport canals, indicating the growth of the economic unit and the rising need to move large quantities of tax grains and other commodities over long distances.vThe growth of production was accompanied by a rapid development of trade and a tremendous increase in wealthy. vAs the Chou period progresses one hears more and more of wealthy merchants of all types. vThis newly risen class proved disruptive to the old aristocratic order, which perhaps in self-defense, propagated a theory that society consist of four classes: vthe warrior-administrators at the top, the peasants or primary producers next, the artisans or secondary producers third, and last of all the merchants, whose economic value seemed dubious to the aristocrats. vHowever unrealistic this theory was even in late Chou times, it remained East Asia dogma for the next two millennium. vWhile bolts of milk and ingots of precious metal had come into early use as media of exchange and continued to be used until modern times, copper coinage became prevalent at this time.vAt first the coins were in the shape of small agricultural tools in the western parts of the country and small knives in the east, but before the end of the Chou era the copper cash, a small round coin with a square hole for stringing purposes, had come into use, and it remained the standard Chinese coin until late in the nineteenth century.vThe late Chou also saw the appearance of other characteristic features of Chinese civilization, such as chopsticks and lacquer. 3.1.2 The States of the Eastern Chou Period vHand in hand with technological and economic progress went a steady growth of the effective political unit, as the great water-control activity of the latter centuries of the era clearly shows. vAmong the welter of petty city-states that covered the North China Plain, some ten already stood out by the eighth century B.C. as larger and more efficient units. vThese states, however, lost their leadership in later centuries to those on the periphery of the Chou cultural area. vCrowded together in the center, they had less room for growth, and they were probably more constrained by tradition from making innovations in political, military, and economic techniques. vThe states of Lu and Sung, for example, despite the proud tradition that their rulers were descended from the Duke of Chou and the Shang royal line respectively, and despite their prominence in the early years of the Eastern Chou, gradually degenerated to the status of satellites of the peripheral states.vChi was typical of the border states. vLocated on the eastern edge of the North China Plain, it extended its sway over the greater part of the hilly Shantung Peninsula, increasing its area sixfold in the seventh and sixth centuries B.C. and winning control over an area comparable to a modern Chinese province. vOn the north, in modern Shansi Province, the state of Chin carved out a comparable domain.vBeyond it to the northeast, in the area around the modern Peking, was Yen, from which has been derived the literary name for Peking: Yen-ching, or the Yen capital.vIn the west, Chin, regarded as semi-barbarian by the others, replaced the Chou in the Wei Valley.vIn the south, the semi-barbarian state of Chu had by the eighth century build up a vast domain along the middle reaches of the Yangtze River. vFrom the start it rejected the empty pretense of Chou rule by calling its own rulers wang, or “kings”.vTo its east the state of Wu had by the sixth century come to dominate the area around the lower Yangtze. vRecent archaeological discoveries indicate that it grew from an early Chou outpost among barbarian peoples.vOn the coastal region beyond Wu appeared the powerful state of Yueh. vSituated in a region of great lakes and navigable rivers, these three southern states were water powers, with fleets as well as armies. vWu is the origin of the name Wu dialect for the language of the Shanghai area, and in Yueh we have the first appearance of a name that clung to the edge of the advancing southern boundary of the Chinese cultural area, coming to rest eventually in Vietnam, or “Yueh South”.vThe regions ruled by the great peripheral states fell for the most part within the area of the early Chou conquests, but they were in part inhabited by what people in the Chinese heartland considered to be “barbarians.” vOn the north and west these “barbarians” presumably pastoral folk, some perhaps already Chinese-speaking.vIn the south, they were agricultural people like the Chinese but were said to speak unintelligible tongues (though these were probably related Sinitic languages) and they clearly had many other distinctive cultural features. vThe incorporation of these “barbarian” peoples into the Chinese cultural area during the Eastern Chou period was the start of the great process of acculturation by which the originally non-Chinese peoples of the Yangtze Valley and South China were gradually drawn into the main stream of Chinese civilization, except for a few still unassimilated remnants in the extreme southwest.3.1.3 Political and Social Innovation vThe early Chou city-states were highly aristocratic societies.vTheir ruling lords claimed a sort of religious legitimacy as the maintainers of sacrifices to the common ancestors, and their warrior henchmen were largely their own relatives. vBut as technology advanced, wealth increased, trade grew, population rose, and the political unit expanded, this old form of aristocratic, almost tribal organization became outmoded. vMany of the individual states became too large and complex for such family-like control.vThe old communal use of land was gradually replaced by private ownership, and powerful new families, whose wealth was based on the lands they owned or on commerce, replaced the old aristocracy of close relatives of the lords. vNewly risen families of this sort sometimes even overthrew and replaced the old rulers. vOne famous example of this was the split up of the northern state of Chin into the successor states of Han, Wei, and Chao. vThis occurred in 453 B.C. and was officially recognized by the Chou king in 403. vBoth dates are used as the start of the “Warring States” period.vIf large domains were to be kept under control and if subjects were not to challenge the authority of their lords, there had to be stronger and more effective methods of rule than were used in the old aristocratic society. vThe result was the development of more impersonal political instructions and a greater centralization of power. vSeveral important innovations of this sort are attributed to Duke Huan (685-643 B.C.) of the eastern state of Chi and his minister Kuan-tzu, to whom a later book of this name is popularly attributed.vThey are said to have divided the population of Chi into geographic units controlled by the central government, instituted a uniform tax system, and reorganized the military forces by requiring that the various geographic subunits provide levies for a central army, instead of relying on such household units as the hereditary aristocracy might bring into the field. vChi is also said to have had an active economic policy, attempting to control prices, regulate weights and measures, and encourage trade. vThe first state monopolies of salt and iron production, which were to become major economic supports of centralized government in China, are also traditionally attributed to Kuan-tzu.vIt is hard to say how many of these innovations actually date back to the seventh century B.C or took place first in Chi. vState monopolies probably did not develop that early, but all the reforms attributed to Kuan-tzu were important innovations that had appeared in China by the latter part of the Chou period. vUnquestionably a major aspect of the centralization of power was the establishment of a uniform, centrally controlled system of local government and the development of clear system of agricultural taxes. vAnother key factor was the appearance of bureaucratic administrators to replace the old related aristocrats as the aides of the ruler. vKuan-tzu himself is the first clear example of such a bureaucrat. vWritten law codes also came to replace the old system of personal rule on the basis of accepted tradition. vThe first known to history was that of Duke Wen (445-396) of Wei, one of the three successor states of Chin.3.1.4 Military DevelopmentvMeanwhile the scale and nature of warfare had also changed. vIn earlier times, strict rules of combat had apparently been observed, and there was a strong feeling that, even if subjugated, other noble lines should not be extinguished. vThrough this emphasis on legitimacy, the weaker central states may have sought to check the menace of the peripheral powers. vBut now warfare became much larger in scale and more ruthless. vConquered states were obliterated and turned into centrally controlled provinces of the victor. vIn the fourth and third centuries, all the principal states followed the lead of Chu in assuming the title of king for their rulers, thus indicating that they no longer recognized even the theory of Chou supremacy. vWhile chariots continued in use until the late Chou cheap iron weapons had led to a great increase in the size of fighting forces. vPeasant foot soldiers replaced the aristocratic charioteers, who had been armed with expensive bronze weapons, as the backbone of the armies, which now numbered in the tens of thousands.vAnother military innovation was the use of cavalry.vHorseback riding, first developed by the pastoral peoples of Central and West Asia, had significant cultural influences on the Chinese wholly aside from its military impact. vThe greater mobility made possible by horseback riding speeded up communications between the agricultural civilizations of West and East Asia. vThis may account for the more rapid flow at this time of Western inventions and ideas to China, thus helping to close the technological gap that had once existed. vEven in the field of the visual arts, for example, the Western emphasis on portrayal in silhouette, as transmitted by the intermediary nomads, came to replace the old Shang approach to design.vThe use of the horse made the pastoral northern neighbors China a greater military threat than they had been before. vOne result of this was the erection by the northern Chinese states of long walls, which when later unified became the Great Wall of China. vAnother result was the replacement of chariots by cavalry in Chinese armies. vThis change was perhaps hastened by the introduction of the crossbow, probably a local invention, which, together with the old native composite bow, made the cavalry a formidable force. vStill another result of horseback riding was the introduction of close-fitting jackets and trousers, which were more convenient than the full sleeves and flowing robbers of the traditional garb. vThe Chinese thus started on their way To becoming the first great agricultural people to clothe both men and women in trousers.Mounted archer design in silhouette, stamped on a late Chou tile.3.1.5 The Search for Political Stability vThe states of the Eastern Chou period, in the face of fading Chou authority and the growing ferocity of warfare, made many efforts to minimize fighting and stabilize the political situation.vBilate